How to apply information needs models to understand your intended beneficiaries.

Historically, media research has focused on what's known as "functional needs," which identify and respond to the practical, defined, and tangible information people need to navigate daily life.

We typically focus on the functional because these needs are often the most fundamental, dealing with essential things in life. And those are important! Understanding how they are met (or not met) speaks to the real, direct impact that information can have on people’s lives.

Although this approach is noble, it’s too linear: It misses the fact that people are not just information consumers, we're complex human beings with a wide range of psychological and social needs that influence how we interact with information.

A narrow focus on the functional need has roots in the early period of information behavior research, a field that emerged from studies of library use and scientific communication. Researchers initially focused on how people choose and use information sources to meet specific, often practical, goals.

While this laid important groundwork, it also created a blind spot that persists today: If we only focus on news events and not on how people respond to them, we miss opportunities to provide essential information that could shape how individuals in society react to the world around them.

In this post, we cover theories on information needs that reveal the complexity of human information behavior and challenge us to move beyond only the functional and embrace the whole person.

Jump: HOW to prioritize information needs | CHART summarizing major theories and models | MASLOW’s hierarchy | WILSON’s model | USES and gratifications | MEDIA system dependency | SOCIAL cognitive theory | CULTIVATION theory | ERDELEZ's unintentional discovery | HOW to use these models

Using information needs models to prioritize audience needs and corresponding information gaps.

Applying information needs models to our work allows newsrooms and information creators to prioritize our information production according to the specific needs of their intended audience in a given circumstance. It helps us understand not only what kinds of information people seek, but also when, why and how.

Consider a breaking news event. How do people first learn about it, why do they seek out more information about it, and where do they get that information? Your publication may not be their first choice, but if your information fulfills some of their information needs, they may be much more likely to encounter, use, and share it – which makes it much more likely to have a meaningful effect on their lives.

An overview of information needs models.

A summary of information needs models, created by Gazzetta.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

Introduced in 1943, Abraham Maslow's theory provides a framework for understanding human motivation that has been widely applied across various disciplines, including information behavior research.

It is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels of needs, from basic physiological needs at the bottom to self-actualization at the top. Researchers have drawn parallels between these levels of needs and different types of information needs and seeking behaviors:

1. Physiological and safety needs: At these levels, information seeking might focus on immediate, survival-related information such as where to find food, shelter, or medical care. In modern contexts, this could extend to information about social services or housing.
2. Social needs: Information needs at this level might relate to finding social connections, understanding social norms, or accessing communication channels to maintain relationships.
3. Self-esteem: Information seeking at this level could involve looking for information to improve one's skills, understand one's rights, or gain recognition in a particular field.
4. Self-actualization: At the highest level, information needs might relate to personal growth, education, or creative pursuits.

Applying Maslow's hierarchy to information behavior provided several insights to develop later needs models later:

• Maslow proposed a hierarchy of motivational needs, which some researchers suggested that information needs may also follow a hierarchical structure.
• Maslow’s model provided the foundation that basic, survival-related information needs may take precedence over higher-level needs for self-improvement or actualization.
• Maslow's theory highlighted how different contexts or life circumstances might lead to different information needs and behaviors. For instance, individuals in precarious living situations might prioritize information related to basic needs, while those in stable environments might seek information for self-improvement or leisure.
• Maslow also provided a framework for understanding the underlying motivations for information seeking by suggesting that information behavior is not just about filling knowledge gaps, but about satisfying fundamental human needs.

All in all, by linking information needs to a comprehensive theory of human motivation, Maslow's hierarchy encouraged a more holistic view of information behavior that considers the full spectrum of human experiences and motivations.

However, applying Maslow's hierarchy to information behavior does not come without criticism. Some argue that information needs, like motivational needs, may not follow a strict hierarchy and can vary across cultures and individuals.

Other critics suggest that mapping information needs directly onto Maslow's hierarchy may oversimplify the complex and often non-linear nature of information behavior.

Tom Wilson’s Information Model.

Tom Wilson's model of information behavior moves from a system-centered approach to a user-centered one and incorporates additional factors that can influence information behavior.

Wilson’s initial model, published in 1981 and revised in 1996 and 1999, focused on the origin of information needs and the barriers to information seeking, from the emergence of an information need to the use of acquired information. This model was groundbreaking in its time for three reasons:

• The model places the person using information at the center of the model, rather than the information system;
• The model recognizes that information-seeking behavior arises as a consequence of a need perceived by an information user; and
• The model identifies various barriers that might prevent an individual from seeking information, including personal, interpersonal, and environmental barriers.

Through this model and its revisions, Wilson provided a framework that identified factors affecting information behavior and how they are interrelated. Wilson justified the choice of theoretical concepts through empirical research, but some argue that the later models are too complex for practical application in some research contexts.

And despite attempts to show feedback loops, the models are sometimes criticized for presenting information behavior as a somewhat linear process. Other critics suggest that Wilson’s models primarily focus on individual information behavior, potentially underplaying social and collaborative information practices.

Uses and Gratifications Theory.

First articulated by Herta Herzog in the 1940s and later refined by Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch in the 1970s, Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) shifts focus from how media affects people to how people actively use media to satisfy specific needs. Their user-centered perspective aligned closely with the evolution of information behavior research away from system-centered approaches.

The theory's core premise is that individuals actively select media and information sources to fulfill particular gratifications, emphasizing a framework for understanding motivation in information seeking. These gratifications typically fall into several categories:

• Cognitive (information acquisition),
• Effective (emotional satisfaction),
• Social integrative (strengthening connections),
• Personal integrative (reinforcing identity),
• Tension release (escape and entertainment).

These categorizations help understand why people seek different types of information and choose particular information channels. Emphasizing active audience choice and need satisfaction informs digital information behavior, like helping explain why people might choose different platforms for different information needs.

For instance, they may use professional networking sites for career information while turning to social media for community news.

Like Maslow's hierarchy when applied to information behavior, UGT has faced criticism for potentially oversimplifying complex motivations and assuming too much rationality in user choices.

Media System Dependency Theory.

Media System Dependency Theory (MSDT), developed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur in 1976, builds on UGT by examining how increasing reliance on media for need satisfaction leads to greater media influence in people's lives.

While UGT focuses on needs driving media consumption, MSDT explores how consumption creates dependencies that shape information-seeking patterns through three types of dependencies people develop with media systems:

1. Understanding (of self and social environment)
2. Orientation (for behavior and interaction decisions)
3. Entertainment (for relaxation and emotional release)

The theory proposes these dependencies become stronger when:

• Social change and conflict are high
• Media serves many central information functions
• Media access is relatively unrestricted
• Alternative information sources are limited

An important distinction from UGT is that MSDT examines the structural relationships between media, audiences, and society, rather than just individual motivations.

The theory helps explain why people might maintain strong attachments to particular information sources or platforms even when those sources don't fully satisfy their needs. This attachment develops because the perceived costs of switching to alternative sources (in terms of time, effort, and uncertainty) outweigh the potential benefits.

MSDT has become particularly relevant in the internet age, where social media platforms and other digital information sources can create powerful dependencies through their integration into daily life routines and social connections.

Social Cognitive Theory.

Developed by Albert Bandura, social cognitive theory differs between what people hope to get from their media use (gratifications sought, or GS) and what they actually obtain from it (gratifications obtained, or GO).

The theory breaks this relationship into three parts:

1. Evaluation: People actively assess whether their media experiences meet their expectations. For instance, someone might turn to social media hoping to feel more connected with friends (GS), but end up feeling more isolated instead (GO). This mismatch between expectations and reality influences future media choices.
2. Learning: Through repeated experiences with different media sources, people develop expectations about which sources will best meet their needs. When the gratifications they obtain consistently exceed those sought, people learn to trust and rely on those sources. This explains why people often develop strong loyalties to particular news websites, social media platforms, or information channels.
3. Feedback loop: When people find a good match between their sought and obtained gratifications, they're more likely to:

• Return to that information source in the future
• Recommend it to others
• Invest more time and effort in using it effectively
• Develop more sophisticated strategies for extracting value from it

Conversely, when the obtained gratifications consistently fall short of what was sought, people typically:

• Reduce their use of that source
• Seek alternatives
• Adjust their expectations
• Develop more critical attitudes toward the source

The framework also acknowledges that gratifications aren't static and can evolve over time as people's needs change and as they become more sophisticated media users. Someone might initially use a platform just for basic information but gradually discover and appreciate its more complex features and capabilities.

Understanding this dynamic between sought and obtained gratifications helps researchers and designers create better information systems that attract users initially and continue to meet their evolving needs over time.

Cultivation Theory.

Developed by George Gerbner in the 1960s, Cultivation Theory originally focused on how repeated exposure to television content shapes viewers' perceptions of social reality. Today, its principles have become increasingly relevant across all forms of media consumption.

Combining this theory with Uses and Gratifications Theory allows us to understand how media choices and their effects create a feedback loop in information behavior through a “perception-selection spiral.”

Uses and Gratifications Theory tells us that people actively choose media to satisfy specific needs, while Cultivation Theory then helps us understand how those choices, over time, shape how people see the world.

Combining these theories helps explain a few important phenomena in modern information behavior:

1. Echo chamber formation: People naturally gravitate toward information sources that confirm their existing beliefs (UGT), and prolonged exposure to these sources further solidifies these beliefs (cultivation), making them even more likely to seek similar sources in the future.
2. Selective exposure: In digital environments, where people have unprecedented control over their media diet, the cultivation effect can be particularly strong because users can easily avoid contradicting viewpoints and immerse themselves in preferred narratives.
3. Reality perception gaps: Different groups using different media sources may develop increasingly divergent views of reality, as each group's media choices cultivate distinct worldviews.

We see these intensifying in the digital age through several ways: Algorithmic recommendations often amplify the cultivation effect by suggesting content similar to what users already consume.

Social media platforms make it easier than ever to curate personal information environments. And the abundance of available information sources allows people to find media that precisely match their existing beliefs.

Understanding this theoretical combination helps us understand why simply providing access to diverse information sources isn't enough to broaden people's perspectives. The interplay between active media selection (UGT) and gradual belief cultivation suggests that information behavior is part of a complex system where choices and perceptions continuously influence each other.

Sanda Erdelez’s Unintentional Discovery.

Sanda Erdelez's work since the 1990s focused on unintentional information discovery through "information encountering," a term she coined to describe the serendipitous discovery of useful information while engaged in other activities or searches.

Her research has explored this phenomenon in various contexts, including digital environments, contributing to a broader view of information behavior that goes beyond intentional, goal-directed seeking.

Erdelez has investigated individual differences in people’s likelihood to encounter information and developed models to explain the process. Her work has important implications for designing information systems, suggesting ways to facilitate opportunistic information discovery. Search engine optimization is one example.

Use these models together to keep your work tied to process to ensure greater impact.

All of these models present ways to shift toward more holistic, contextual understandings of complex human information interactions. Reviewing these theories helps us avoid the trap of viewing information needs and consumption in isolation or in overly deterministic terms.

Instead, we recognize that they are embedded in complex contexts of emotional, social, and cultural factors, and can use these frameworks to craft research that sees the whole person, and dissemination strategies that get our information to them.

As you work through audience research and reporting processes, you can apply these models at several stages to help you define and respond to information needs.

For example, using findings from audience research, you could map audience information needs onto Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to rank the priority and likely impact of desired reporting on your intended audience.

Then, you could supplement your understanding with theories like Uses and Gratifications, Media System Dependency, or Social Cognitive Theory to identify the media seeking habits and information environment of your intended audience. This could prompt questions like:

• How will you get your information in front of your intended audience, based on their information-seeking behaviors and in light of restrictive information contexts?
• Does the Uses and Gratifications Theory affect how you present your content?
• Does the existence of echo chambers or other concepts from Cultivation Theory influence your ideas about reporting?

For more information and inspiration on where these theories could apply throughout your work, check out our additional posts on Gazzetta phases of audience research, reporting, dissemination, and audience habituation process.

Having this understanding of information needs models helps information creators build empathy with the communities they cover and learn about their values and identities. This approach also helps develop more nuanced and effective research strategies that yield deeper insights into the information behaviors of any community.

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If you have feedback or questions, don’t hesitate to get in touch at hello@gazzetta.xyz.